Russian national coinage will celebrate its thousandth anniversary in 1988. The
most ancient issues were struck between 988 and 1019, of which 11 gold and 330
silver pieces are known. All are modeled after Byzantine types, probably because
of the then recent "conversion" of the country to Orthodox religion. These
ancient coins circulated in Russia alongside Arabic dirhems and Western European
coinage. In Russia, the twelfth through the early fourteenth centuries are known
as the coinless period, when solid silver bars provided the principal medium of
exchange. The minting of Russian coins resumed in the second half of the
fourteenth century with the introduction of "wire money" - crude, irregular
shapes of metal stamped with the mark of an issuing authority.
The ancient coins of Russia were struck on behalf of the
princes of Kiev, the political and economic capital from the tenth to twelfth
centuries. The small quantities found indicate that this early coinage was not
meant for trade but rather was a self-proclaimed declaration of importance on
behalf of the Kievan Princes. In 1169 Kiev was sacked by the Russian prince
Andrei of Suzdal who then moved the capital to the northeastern city of
Vladimir. The decline of Kiev was cemented by the Mongol invasion of the
thirteenth century as the city was sacked in 1240. For the next two hundred
years all of Russia was under the Mongol yoke. Devastating raids, humiliating
tribute and slavery were common occurrences during this period. Under the
suzerainty of the Mongol Khans, the city of Vladimir remained the nominal
capital of Russia
The Russian political system of this era consisted of a Grand
Prince, originally the Prince of Kiev. A principality consisted of a major city
and the lands and smaller cities surrounding and dependent upon that city. In
essence, they were city-states. Under the Grand Prince were princes of other
principalities in varying ranks based upon seniority. The title Grand Prince was
used by several of these princes.
The basis for Grand Princely succession was not fixed.
Sometimes it was based on the law of primogeniture, sometimes title passed to a
brother, sometimes it was taken by force or bribe. After the Mongol conquest the
Grand Prince had to be sanctioned by the Great Khan, who would bestow and revoke
the title based upon promises of tribute. It was common for a given prince to
win and then lose this title several times in his lifetime. The Grand Prince was
the senior political leader of the Russian lands - assuming, of course, that the
"junior" princes allowed him to rule them. By tradition, the Grand Prince was
also considered the Prince of Vladimir even if his "home" was a different
principality. The other Russian princes acknowledged the seniority of the grand
princes of Vladimir and, although not always readily, lent their support to
policies designed to achieve common objectives. In the early fourteenth century
Moscow surpassed Vladimir as the center of Grand Princely power under Ivan
Kalita. This occurred through armed interference as well as outright purchases
of nearby lands. Eventually the Russian lands would be unified around the Great
Principality of Moscow. This article will trace the development of the coinage
of Moscow during the unification phase of Russian history. This period,
commencing about 1380, is a period of feudal disintegration and internecine war,
characterized by the absence of any feeling of national unity. The period ends
with the unification of Russia under Moscow during the reign of Ivan III (The
Great), who ruled from 1503 to 1533. Ivan III finally developed the notion of
tsar and was in fact the first Russian Grand Prince to use that title. The
concept of tsar was to be fully realized in Ivan's son Vasili III and grandson
Ivan IV (The Terrible). The title tsar is a corruption of the Latin Caesar.
Before discussing the actual coinage, the historical scene of this chaotic
period must be described.
Political history
After more than a three hundred year hiatus, Russian coinage resumed in the
second half of the fourteenth century. At this time the Mongol yoke had been
over Russia for more than 100 years yet internal strife and rivalries had
weakened the Mongols' previously invincible strength. In 1380 the Russians,
under Dimitri Donskoi, stunningly defeated the Mongols at the battle of Kulikovo,
on the banks of the Don River. Dimitri's surname, literally "of the Don"
originated from this victory. This was the first major setback for the Mongols
and it gave the Russian people hope for future liberation. Concurrent with
weakening Mongol rule, Russian trade and commodity manufacture revived and the
population shifts due to the Mongol invasions slowed. Local economies were
strengthened and a convenient medium of exchange was necessary. This led to the
resumption of coinage. Propaganda also played a part as local princes proclaimed
their somewhat autonomous positions coincident with the above economic changes.
Numerous major and minor princes issued identifiable coins.
At the end of the fourteenth century four Great
Principalities (including Moscow) dominated the Russian scene. Tver, Ryazan and
Suzdal/Nizhny- Novgorod were all independent to a large degree, even though the
Prince of Moscow held the Grand Princely title. The striking of coins then
occurred almost simultaneously in Central and Eastern Russia, first in Moscow
and then soon after in Suzdal/Nizhny-Novgorod and Ryazan. Tver coinage started
shortly after 1400. In addition, many "junior" princes struck local private
coinage in feudal domains dependent upon the above Great Principalities. (See
map on previous page).
Previously the Prince of Tver was defeated in a struggle for
Grand Princely rule by the Moscow Prince. As a re-sult, the Tver principality
became isolated from the outside world (Fig. 1-3).
Tver coinage is known for its multitude of design types. Tver did maintain a
rather tenuous independence from Moscow until 1486, when Ivan III annexed it.
At this point, Dimitri Donskoi (of the Don River), as Grand
Prince, merged the throne of Vladimir into that of the Great Principality of
Moscow. He achieved this through his glory at the battle of Kulikovo and his
placating of the Mongol Khan. After Kulikovo, the Khan Mamai was overthrown and
replaced by Khan Tokhtamish. In 1382, Tokhtamish led a new invasion of Russia to
avenge the previous Mongol defeat. Moscow was sacked and, as a result, the
Russian princes, under Dimitri, agreed to new submissions to the Mongols.
Substantial tribute was promised and Dimitri was the sole collector on behalf of
the Mongols. Thus, he curried favor from the Khan and assured his retention of
the Grand Princely title. His testament would begin a hereditary right of
succession of the throne. Future Grand Princes would be chosen from the Princes
of Moscow. This was the start of the unification process.
The Great Principality of Ryazan played no part in the
previously mentioned struggle between Tver and Moscow. Ryazan, situated
southeast of Moscow, took the first and heaviest blows of the Mongol invasion.
In 1237 the city of Ryazan was pillaged and burned. At that time the Grand
Prince was not sufficiently strong to mobilize a force to try to protect the
eastern frontier. Eventually the Mongol Horde would sweep across most of the
Russian lands. Due to its geographic site, Ryazan would continue to be the
target of frequent Mongol raids. As a result Ryazan culture and politics were
heavily influenced by the Mongols. Even their later coinage would initially
consist of counterstamped Mongol coins (Fig. 4).
Ryazan was annexed to the Moscow territories in 1520.
The Great Principality of Suzdal/Nizhny-Novgorod was
dominated by the two major cities Suzdal and Nizhny-Novgorod, both northeast of
Moscow. Suzdal was quite ancient and had had a glorious past. By the end of the
fourteenth century, however, Nizhny-Novgorod became the main center of the
principality. Like Ryazan, Nizhny-Novgorod was an eastern frontier city, acting
as a buffer between hostile neighbors and the central Muscovite lands. It
remained a Great Principality, with independent princes, as long as the Moscow
Princes were unable to fortify and colonize the eastern frontier. As Moscow
grew, its independence declined until it was annexed in 1451. Like Ryazan, the
early coinage of Suzdal/Nizhny- Novgorod shows definite Mongol influence,
including Arabic legends (Fig. 5).
The northern city of Novgorod was quite important at this
time, especially economically, as it was a center of trade with the West.
Novgorod is not considered a principality but rather a democratic city-state
where the ruling prince was no more than a figurehead. Real rule rested with the
town council. Novgorod was taken by Moscow in 1478 (Fig.
6).
As stated above, coinage resumed first in Moscow, under the
authority of Grand Prince Dimitri Donskoi. Several key factors contributed to
the rise of Moscow. Its strategic location at the center of the intricate river
system of Russia was important as was the fact that both the Grand Prince and
the Metropolitan of the Russian Church were situated at Moscow. After the Mongol
invasions many of the masses of people who left the ravaged eastern frontier
passed through and settled in the Principality of Moscow. In 1389 Dimitri was
succeeded by his son Vasili I who ruled until 1425. Next came Vasili II, the son
of Vasili I, who was then succeeded by Ivan III in 1462. The coinage of these
four rulers, all descendents of Ivan Kalita, encompasses the unification phase
of Russia.
Coin denominations
and characteristics
The extreme diversity of pictorial types
represented by these coins attests to the lack of a central mint during this
period. Evidently the striking of coins was contracted out, probably to a number
of silversmiths, some of whom would strike coins for several princes
concurrently. Thus, some design similarities do exist. Gold coins from this
period are not known with the exception of a unique gold "ducat" of Ivan III
dating from about 1484 (Fig. 7). Mostly anonymous copper coins were struck for
local use in the reigns of Vasili II and Ivan III. The denomination of the
copper coins, Pul or Pulo, is shown on the coins themselves - "Pulo Moscovskoye
- Pulo of Moscow" (Fig. 8-9) but the relationship of copper to silver is not
known and probably fluctuated depending upon time and place. The denomination of
the silver coins, denga, is found only rarely on coins from this period.
Subsequently the term dengi came to be the Russian word for the concept of
money. The terms pulo and denga are probably of Mongol origin and are unknown to
literary sources of the pre-Mongol era.
The term "wire money" is derived from the universal minting technique used for
both silver and copper coins. The planchets were literally made from rolled
silver or copper wire which was then cut into appropriate sections, depending
upon the desired weight. The metal was annealed and then struck into coinage. In
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the wire was generally not flattened
before insertion into the dies. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as
coin weights were reduced and planchets became smaller the wire was first
flattened before striking. Thus the earlier issues are decidedly rare with
complete legends and designs. Well struck specimens command a substantial
premium. Irregular shapes are the rule for this series. Elsewhere in Europe
minting techniques included hammering silver into sheets and then cutting
planchets out of these sheets. This system was inefficient as the waste silver
had to be remelted in order to be re-used. However, greater regularity of the
coin blanks was obtained with the European system.
Images on coins
The earliest artistic
representations on the coins exhibit substantial internal development when
compared to Mongol coinage.
After more than a hundred years of subjection to the Mongol Horde, it is
surprising to see the richness of Russian coinage as opposed to mainly
epigraphic coins of the east. Generally speaking, the images on coins of this
period show no evolution or common thread. Random designs predominate. Yet this
randomness points to an originality of design not as evident in other European
countries. Types represented on the coins include human figures, scenes of the
hunt and combat, horsemen, animals and decorative symbols. Obviously,
combinations of these images are also known. Considering the coin sizes (usually
9 or 10 mm) the images were not as restricted as one would think. The entire
medieval period is marked by this diversity of types except for cities of
Novgorod and Pskov. This was probably due to a greater centralization of minting
operations in those two cities. The licensing to metal artisans in the rest of
Russian allowed for substantial latitude in design selection. Specific types of
each ruler will be discussed in conjunction with the legends.
Inscriptions
The inscriptions on the coins are either in
Russian or are bilingual, Russian and Arabic. The bilingual issues were common
during the Mongol domination. Most medieval Russian coins commonly specify the
issuing prince's name and patronymic (his father's name e.g. "Dimitri Ivanovich
- Dimitri, son of Ivan"). If both names are present on a coin attribution is
simplified. The absence of the patronymic creates difficulty because of the
common usage of identical names by princes of different principalities. Some
coins of this period are anonymous or illegible and there are still many coins
not positively attributed to a given city, let alone a specific prince. The
coins of the principality of Suzdal/Nizhny-Novgorod especially are quite
confusing.
The coin inscriptions initially read "Seal of the Grand Prince" and the prince's
name. Then the word "seal" is dropped but the grammar still denotes possession
"by the Grand Prince." As Moscow grew in importance and power, the title on the
coins matured. First to "Grand Prince of all Russia" and then to "Sovereign of
all the Russian lands." Ivan III was the first Russian ruler to call himself
tsar but the title does not appear on his coins. His son, Vasili III (1505-33)
was the first to use this title on coins. In the fifteenth century, a unique
Latin inscription is found on coins of Ivan III. The inscription "Ornistotelis"
(Fig. 11) probably refers to the moneyer for the issue. The name "Master
Alexandro" (Fig. 10) appears in a Russian inscription on another coin of Ivan
III. Once again this was the name of a moneyer.
Dimitri Donskoi
The first coins of Moscow were probably struck as
a result of Dimitri Donskoi's victory at Kulikovo. The battle thrust the Prince
of Moscow into the political forefront of Russia and sparked a desire to
proclaim this importance. Unfor-tunately the sacking of Moscow in 1382 by
Tokhtamish restored Mongol rule but the Russian victory was not forgotten. All
coins of Dimitri Donskoi carry an Arabic inscription on the reverse, usually
with the name of the reigning Khan Tokhtamish signifying the continued
subservience (Fig. 12-14). However, there is no direct indication in any source
that attests this was done at the orders of the Khan. It is likely that after
the raid of 1382, Dimitri wished to pay homage to the Khan to avoid further
punitive expeditions against Russia. In spite of the victory of 1380, the
Russian princes were not truly united, even against a common enemy. Further,
between prior Mongol raids and the "Black Death" of the 1350s, the Russian
population was exhausted. The obverse of Dimitri's coins consists of the
circular legend "Seal of Grand Prince Dimitri", enclosing the figure of a
rooster or a human male head. While no significance is attached to the pictorial
design, the legend obviously declares his right to the Grand Princely throne.
The fact that the Khan still had to sanction his rule did not dilute its
meaning. All coins of Dimitri are rare.
Vasili I
Dimitri's son Vasili continued to strike coins,
though on a much larger scale than his father. Both series are somewhat similar
in appearance, but the metrology is different due to weight and purity
reductions. The coin reverses continue the Arabic inscriptions of Dimitri
including naming Khan Tokhtamish, due to Vasili's need for confirmation of his
throne from that Khan. The Khan was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1395 who
hastened the Mongol decline and lessened their grip on Russia.
Vasili had inherited a difficult political situation. While the Mongol threat
began to wane, encroachments from Lithuania began in spite of Vasili's marriage
to the daughter of Vitovt, the Grand Prince of Lithuania. Vitovt had designs on
the Moscow throne. Meanwhile the control of Moscow over Tver, Ryazan, and
Novgorod was terribly weak, with these lands conducting their affairs
independently. More positively, Vasili had continued to extend the Moscow domain
by seizing the principality of Suzdal/Nizhny-Novgorod in 1392. His rule there
did not last long, however, and it was not officially annexed until 1451 under
Vasili II.
In 1417 Vasili I's eldest son Ivan died and the Grand Princely title was to pass
to the infant Vasili II. At this point the rules for succession were still not
fixed and Vasili I's brother, Yuri, contested the naming of Vasili II. Yuri was
the Prince of Galich, which was a feudal domain under the Great Principality of
Moscow. Thus Yuri was a "junior" prince compared to Vasili I. The dispute over
succession, then, involved not which Grand Principality should lead Russia, but
rather which line of the Moscow princes should control Moscow. It was not
debated that Moscow was the center of Russia. When Vasili I died, Yuri gathered
forces to seize the Grand Princely title. Because of Lithuania support of Vasili
II, Yuri backed off but conflict was to continue during the reign of Vasili II.
The obverse legends of Vasili I's coins carry the evolutionary legend "Grand
Prince of All Russia" signifying the continued rise of Moscow. He also sought to
solidify the right of succession to his family. A major design common to Russian
coinage was introduced in his reign. The horseman type appears, either with a
sword or a falcon in the hand of the rider. Falconing had traditionally been
considered a princely sport. The horseman type, after modifications, would
become the sole Russian type of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Other
designs of Vasili include quadruped animals and human figures with swords and
axes.
Vasili II (the blind)
Shortly before his death in 1425, Vasili I had
named his son, Vasili II, to succeed him as Grand Prince of all Russia. Upon
the death of Vasili, Yuri of Galich began to marshal his forces. The
Metropolitan of the Russian church, the merchant class of Moscow, and Vitovt,
the Grand Prince of Lithuania, all supported Vasili II. However, it was
initially agreed that a final decision would be left to the Khan. Events
progressed slowly until 1431 when both the Metropolitan and Vitovt died. Yuri
immediately declared war on Vasili. It was not until 1432 that the Khan's envoy
installed Vasili II on the throne of Moscow. This enthronement now took place at
Moscow instead of Vladimir. This was to be the last time that a Mongol envoy
participated in the coronation of the Grand Prince of Russia.
Vasili's worries were not over, however, as Yuri managed to occupy Moscow in
1432 and 1434. Yuri's successes became meaningless when he died in mid-1434.
Yuri's eldest son Vasili Kosoi attempted to take the throne but he had no
support. After several engagements Vasili II captured and blinded Vasili Kosoi
in 1436. The rule of Vasili II was interrupted again in 1445, when he was
captured by the Mongols in the Battle of Suzdal. This convinced Dimitri Shemyaka,
the second son of Yuri of Galich, to try his turn at the Grand Princely throne.
The people of Moscow were to pay a large ransom to the Mongols to free Vasili
but the people rebelled. This reinforced Dimitri Shemyaka's ambitions and in
1446 Vasili was captured by him and blinded, hence the nickname "Vasili the
Blind". Vasili was banished from Moscow but local unrest fueled a movement to
restore him to the throne. In 1447 Vasili was restored. Dimitri was eventually
poisoned in 1453.
The minting of coins of Vasili was twice interrupted as coinage of the Princes
of Galich replaced it when he was unseated. Yuri and his son Dimitri had struck
coins at Galich, part of the Great Principality of Moscow. During their
occupations of Moscow, coins were struck there showing the inscription "Grand
Prince". It is debatable whether these are coins of Galich or Moscow since
neither ruler was properly recognized. Shortly after Vasili's return to the
throne in 1447 he struck coins with the new legend "Lord of all the Russian
Lands". This proclaimed his victory and his entitlement to the throne.
Previously his coins carried the legend "Grand Prince Vasili" similar to those
of his forefathers. Obverse designs were similar to prior issues (Fig. 18-21).
The horseman type was more frequently used, but the variety of types and even
weights is overwhelming. A likely answer for this diversity is the confusing
political period of Vasili's reign.
Reverses of his coins tended to show only a multi-line Russian legend, with no
design. This development was due to the weight and size reductions of coins
under Vasili. According to Oreshnikov, the primary reference for coins of this
period, from 1380 to 1410 coin weight declined from 1.03 grams to .80. Between
1410 and 1434, weights dropped to .58 grams and finally, between 1434 and 1462
the weights dropped again to .31 grams. Given the minting techniques of the
time, these small coins were not suitable for circular inscriptions since too
much would be missing from each coin. Linear inscriptions had a better chance of
remaining intelligible.
After Vasili finally won the civil war, he proceeded to annex various
territories to Moscow. Galich and Mozhaisk were now directly under Vasili. The
city of Dmitrov had been seized in 1428. In 1456 Vasili II was named guardian of
the eight year old Prince of Ryazan. This was the start of Ryazan dependence
which would culminate in formal annexation by Moscow in 1520. More importantly,
Novgorod lost most of its independence in 1456 when Vasili avenged the help Novgorod
had given his antagonists in the civil war. Prior to 1456 Novgorod coinage
carried the reverse legend "Of Great Novgorod". After Vasili's victory the
legend changes to "Seal of the Grand Prince" indicating dependence on Moscow.
The disorders of this reign eventually led to a strengthening of the Moscow
state as the fiercest test of the Grand Princely authority was now over.
Ivan III (the Great)
Ivan is usually called the founder of the Russian
State but it is important to remember the firm foundation laid by his
predecessors. Coinage of Ivan III took place in the time of the end of the
Mongol yoke. This liberation was not due to a dramatic battle but rather was due
to the inability of the Mongols to continue to enforce their rule. In 1480
armies of both forces faced each other, but Khan Akhmet withdrew his force
before any contact was made. After this, the Grand Prince of Moscow would pay no
further tribute. This was foreshadowed in 1462, for when Ivan was proclaimed
Grand Prince in that year it was without any sanction from the Khan. As respects
Russian affairs, however, Ivan's accession was of little significance since it
was merely a continuation of the Grand Princely policy started before him.
In the course of his reign, Ivan more than tripled Moscow's dominions. Novgorod
had already lost some independence under Vasili II, and was now leaning towards
an alliance with Poland and Lithuania. As a result, Ivan attacked and annexed
the city in 1478. The Principality of Tver also looked to Lithuania for support,
so Ivan invaded and subdued the area in 1485. Other minor territories followed.
After these successes Ivan began to use the title tsar although not on his
coins. His son Vasili III would be the first to use that title on coins but not
regularly. In 1547 Ivan IV (The Terrible) would standardize use of the title.
Judging by the smaller number of images on his coins compared to prior ones, it
appears that the use of metalworkers as moneyers was being replaced by a more
permanent mint. The predominate design type is the horseman type, which was now
considered the "Moscow Arms". Several distinct horseman types appear. The
legends on Ivan's coins state the formulas "Grand Prince Ivan, son of Vasili" as
well as "Lord of all Russia". These compare with his father's inscriptions.
Bilingual coins of Ivan exist, which is surprising in that they were struck at a
time of no Mongol interference (Fig. 22-26). The Arabic legend reads "This is a denga of Moscow". This legend is repeated in Russian on other types (Fig. 27).
It is unusual that at this time anonymous coins were struck which are attributed
to both Ivan III and his son Vasili III. It is probable that the name was
omitted purposely. Almost all Russian coinage was now in the hands of the Grand
Prince of Moscow - only Pskov continued to strike independent coinage until
1510. Thus, it was thought unnecessary to identify the issuing ruler since there
was only one issuing ruler, the Grand Prince of Moscow.
